GREAT JOB!!

Hi Everyone,

Great job this year on blogging our Honors Biology Class. I think that you all learned a lot this year and so did I. Have a wonderful summer and I'll see you in the fall.

Mrs. Andrews

June 1, 2011

Yo wat up.

we did a lot of notes today....NERVOUS SYSTEM!

Neuron- nerve cell specialized for carrying signals from one part of the body to another.

Nerve- the communication line made from bundles of neuron fibers wrapped in connective tissue.

The nervous system has two MAIN parts. The CNS (Central Nervous System) and the PNS (Peripheral Nervous System)

The functions of the N.S. are sensory output, Integration/Association interneurons, and Motor Output.

Motor Neuron

• has nucleus and other organelles
• Dendrites- branched, short, and recieve message from other cells
• Axon- long fiber that conducts signal toward another neuron or effector.
• 
• Supporting cells- protect, insulate, reinforce
• Myelin sheath- chain of beadlike supporting cells
• Nodes of Ranview- spaces in myelin where impulse is transmitted
• synaptic knob- relays signals to other neurons

The signals move through the neuron in a weird way. In rest, the INSIDE IS NEGATIVE AND THE OUTSIDE IS POSITIVE. A stimulus is something that causes a nerve signal to start. Action potential is self-propagating change in voltage across plasma membrane.

How does the impulse move from neuron to cell?

• Electrical Synapse

1. action potential jumps from cell to cell
2. heart and digestive track

• Chemical synapse

1. synaptic cleft- narrow gap seperating 2 cells.
2. most other organs, skeletal muscle and CNS

Neurotransmitter- chemical carrying info from neuron to another type of cell that will react

1. Action Potential arrives at the synaptic knob
2. Neurotransmitter vessicals fuse with membranes
3. neurotransmitters are released into cleft
4. neurotransmitter diffuse across gap and binds to receptor proteins on receiving neurons
5. Ion channels open and ions trigger action potential.
6. Neurotransmitter are broken down and returned to sending neoron for recycling

CNS

• brain and spinal cord
• 
• Cephalization- concentration of nervous system at the head end.
• Centralization- presence of CNS saparate from PNS
• spinal cord- bundle of nerve fibers in spinal column (Central communication between brain and body)
• Brain- Master control center (Homeostasis center, sensory center, emotion, intellect
• Brain as cerebrospinal fluid - liquid that cushions the CNS and helps supply it with nutrients, WBC, and hormones.
• Has Meninges- layers of connective tissue for protection
• white matter- mainly axons (with myelin sheath)
• gray matter- mainly nerve cell bodies and dendrites (Cerebral Cortex)

PNS

• Has a couple of divisions.
• 
• Sensory Division

1. brings info to CNS from outside environment
2. Info into CNS from body itself (internal environment)

• Motor Division

1. Somatic Nervous System- carrys signals to Skeletal muscles (voluntary, concious control)
2. Autonomic Nervous System- controls smooth and cardiac muscle, organs, glands, digestive, circulatory, excretory, and endocrine (2 branches and involuntary)

Yep! Thats all folks!

HW:

1. Study for finals
2. UP pg. 81-84
3. study for test Mon.
4. Crossword puzzle

next scribe Kates...yee

5/31/11

What we did today:

• Notes




• Balloon lab and Lab #65: UP 57-61

Smoking

• Air pollutants: CO, SO2, O3




• It contains more than 4000 chemicals




• The chemicals damage the mucus and cilia making it difficult to remove foreign particles




• It kills over 430,000 Americans per year




• Emphysema: disease that causes alveoli to disintegrate causing breathlessness and fatigue

Respiration

5/26/11
Yunsu Y.
Respiration notes:
** The respiration that we are talking about is not the same as cellular respiration!
1. Respiratory Surfaces:
** not all organisms have respiratory systems: bacteria don't have because their surface area to volume ration is large so diffusion can occur, but for humans our surface area is too small so we need respiratory systems.

• Earthworm: has moist skin=making diffusion across body surface easier.
  


• Aquatic Organisms: gills extend from the body which increases surface area and they are surrounded by water so that diffusion can occur.
  


• Terrestrial Organisms: respiratory surfaces fold into the body. The system is inside lined with moisture (mucus), needed for diffusion.


• Insects: tracheae and no circulatory system to transport O2.

2. Human Respiratory System:

• Breathing: the moist insides are exposed to air, then O2 dffuese into blood vessels and CO2 to the lungs.
  


• Circulatory System: trasnport O2 to all body cells and O2 back to lungs.


• Diaphragm: Sheet of muscle-important for breathing.


• Pharynx: where the digestive and respiratory systems meet.


• Larynx: voice box, we produce sounds by breathing out and the air moves the vocal cords making them vibrate.


• Trachea: windpipe, somtimes food gets caught here causing us to cough or choke.


• Bronchi: Lead to each lung


• Bronchioles: smaller branches


• Alveoli: cluster of air sacs. These are like the villi and microvilli found in the small intestine. This is where gas exchange occurs with blood vessels. These increase the surface area=more gas exchange.

Aveoli close up

3. Taking a Breath

• When the diaphragm contracts air is "PULLED" into the lungs. This is increasing the volume and decreasing the pressure. High pressure outside wants to get inside to the low pressure. (high to low!)--------- Negative Pressure breathing.
  


• When diaphragm relaxes when the air is "PUSHED" out of the lungs. There is a decrease in volume and an increase in pressure.
  

4. Controlling our breathing:

• Nerves in the brain regulate our breathing. Nerves tell the diaphragm when to contract and relax.
  


• 10-14 inhalations per minute. (average)


• This average will change depending on CO2 levels. The more CO2 in the blood, the faster the respiration rate.
  


• Hyperventilation: Purges blood of CO2 that brain stops sending messages to the diaphragm. This causes people to pass out but breathing into a paper bag helps by increasing the amount of CO2 taken in.

5. Hemoglobin: Binds to oxygen.

• Consists of 4 polypeptide chains, heme (chemical group) and iron- gives blood the red color.


• Each iron atom can bind to 1 O2 molecule=each hemoglobin can carry up to 4 O2 molecules.


• O2 rich blood is bright red and O2 poor blood is dark red or blue.

6. Problems:

• Iron deficiency cause anemia
  


• When hemoglobin binds to CO (carbon monoxide)=Bad! Now the hemoglobin cannot bind with oxygen because the bond is too strong on the CO. This interferes with the delivery of O2 to the body cells and cellular respiration=death. Also found in cigarette smoke. \

7. Effects of Smoking:

• Pollutes air


• Contains many harmful chemicals damaging mucus and cilia making it hard to remove foreign particles. = smokers cough.


• Smoking kills ~430,000 Americans per year.


• Emphysema: disease that causes alveoli to disintegrate. = reduces lungs' ability to exchange gas and causes breathlessness and fatigue.
  

HW: Study for Fetal Pig Dissection Test TOM!!
Lab 54&55 due tom with cover page and color code the pictures
U.P 47-51 and 55-56 due TUESDAY

Next Scribe CJ P.

Pig Dissection Day 3

Heart and Lungs Continued:
We used scissors to cut the blood vessels around the heart.  After examining the heart and the vessels, we examined the back, or dorsal, side of the heart.  Afterwards, the heart was cut lengthwise (the cut was parallel to the front and back of the heart).  Both ventricles and the left atrium were visible inside of the heart.  With the heart removed, we identified the trachea and esophagus.  The trachea is the windpipe that carries air.  The esophagus is the tube that carries food, liquids, and saliva from your mouth to stomach.  The carotid arteris and jugular veins, which carry blood to and from the head, were found on either side of the trachea.  Beneath them was the vagus nerve.  The thyroid gland was placed ventral to the trachea.  It was reddish-brown and had two lobes.  The larynx was located at the top of the trachea.

The Head:

We opened the mouth of the pig and examined the tongue, any teeth visible, and the back of the throat.  We had to use our scalpel to slit the corners of the mouth on both sides in order to view the epiglottis, glottis, and opening to the esophagus.  The pig has four pairs of salivary glands; the largest of these is the parotid gland, which extends from the base of the ear to the shoulder and the jaw.  Using our scalpel, we made an incision through the skin and facial muscles at the base of the ear.  The skin and muscle layer were removed, and we examined the parotid gland.  Beneath the parotid gland was the mandibular gland. 

The Nervous System:

The pig has a very similar nervous system to that of humans.  There is the central nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system consisting of cranial and spinal nerves and their branches.  Using our scalpel, we made an incision through the skin of the head.  The skin was then peeled off.  Afterwards, we inserted the pointed end of our scissors between the area where the bones of the skull met.  Then we broke off pieces of the skull until most of the skinned area was open.  The outermost membrane of the pig is called the dura mater.  It is the thickest and toughest of the membranes.  The surface of the brain is covered by a thin membrane called the pia mater.  The third membrane is called the arachnoid membrane and is found between the dura mater and pia mater.  In living animals, cerebrospinal fluid fills the space between the two inner membranes.  Our group frist cut through the dura mater, exposing the brain.  We attempted to identify the right and left cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum, cerebrum, olfactory lobes, and the medulla.  We also identified cranial nerves.  The spinal cord was surrounded and protected by the vertebrae of the spinal column.  We removed the skin from an area of the back so around 8~9 cm of the spinal column were exposed.  The remaining tissues were removed so the spiny extensions of the vertebrae were not completly exposed.  We cut off the tops of the spiny extensions of the vertebrae with our scissors and saw the spinal cord and spinal nerves. 

HW: Lab with cover sheet due Friday! (Don't forget to color code diagrams in lab).

Next Scribe: YUNSU Y. (:

Pig Dissection Day 1

FETAL PIG DISSECTION: Day 1

We started on our first incisions today after we tied down our pigs. The tying helped make clean cut incisions. These incisions led to seeing the abdominal cavity of the fetal pig. The liver takes up most of the upper part with the lungs and the intestines taking up most of the bottom. The gallbladder is hidden behind the lungs and the stomach is the balloon like structure kind of under the liver.

The sex of the pig can be determined by looking underneath the anus. Both males and females have nipples on the ventral surface. The females have a spike-like genital papilla. Males have a scrotal sac containing the testes under their anus.

Dissection to be continued in the next few posts.

Next scribe: Sally Y. :]

May 20th 2011

CJ P

White blood cells v. Platelets

WHITE BLOOD CELLS:
aka: leukocytes
WBCs fight infection
Lack hemoglobin (which is found in RBCs)
Have nucleus (not found in RBCs)
Found OUTSIDE of circulatory system

PLATELETS:
aka: thrombocytes (bits of cytoplasm broken off from bone marrow)
Fibrinogen: protein found in plasma
Fibrin: Fibrinogen converted by clotting
CLOTS BLOOD (scabs)
HEMOPHILIA: excessive, fatal, bleeding occurs from minor cuts
THROMBUS: blood clot that forms in absence of injury
EMBOLUS: thrombus that dislodges and travels

Cardiovascular disease: set of diseases that affect the heart.

The heart requires oxygen rich blood to survive because it's made of TISSUE.

CORONARY ARTERIES: supply heart muscle with oxygen
HEART ATTACK: failure of heart to function properly

ATHEROSCLEROSIS: chronic cardiovascular disease
Cholesterol build up in arteries causing narrow passages--->decreased blood flow----> increased blood pressure= BAD.

TREATMENTS:
ANGIOPLASTY: baloon catheter to compress plaque=opens clogged arteries
STENT: wire mesh tubes prop open arteries
BYPASS SURGERY: vessel sewn onto heart shunt blood around a blocked artery
ARTIFICIAL HEART: an artificial heart.

lots of homework:
Pgs 7-18
Lab 15
Read pig lab -closed toed shoes and hair ties required in case fetal pigs turn into zombies, you will be prepared to run.
43-46

Next scribe: Smally Patty (Sonali)

5/17/11

How is the heart rate controlled?

pacemaker- sets tempo of heart beat

sends impulses through walls of atria making atria contract

AV node delays the contractions to make sure atria are empty

Ways to increase heart rate

-epinepherine- adrenaline, hormone released during stress

-caffeine

-excercise

*increasing heart rate transports more oxygen to muscles

ECG and EKG detect electrical impulses from the pacemaker

Blood Vessels

-Arteries carry blood away from heart, high blood pressure and velocity

outer layer: elastic tissue

middle layer: smooth muscle

inner layer: epithelium

-Veins carry blood to heart, low blood pressure and velocity

inner layer: epithilium

one way valves to prevent back-flow

vessels expand and store

-Capillaries allow for diffusion between blood and tissue cells

Blood Flow

Blood pressure- force that blood exerts against walls of blood vessels

Pulse-rhythmic stretching of arteries

reading blood pressure: 120/80

120=systole

80=diastole

hypertension-high blood pressure

hypotension-low blood pressure

Capillaries-steady blood flow that's increases around digestive tract after eating and skeletal muscle during excercise

Vein- blood moves against gravity, contractions push blood

Blood:

90% water

10% salt, proteins, nutrients, hormones, waste

RBC- erythrocytes, determine blood type, have hemoglobin, increased surface area form bioncave disk

Hemoglobin- iron with protein that transports oxygen

Anemia- low amount of hemoglobin or RBCs

Scribe 5/16/11

New unit!
First topic: Circulation

What's the purpose of the circulatory system?

1. Maintains the exchange of materials in/out of our bodies
2. Efficient internal transport system of blood and other substances
3. Allows diffusion to occur by giving cells the resources they need

-Oxygen from the lungs go to blood, then to tissue
-Carbon Dioxide from tissue go to blood, then to the lungs

-Basically, the circulatory system gets rid of waste in our bodies (Carbon Dioxide, urine, feces)

There are two types!
-OPEN circulatory system:
--Blood is pumped through open blood vessels and flows among cells
--Invertebrates (no backbone), mollusks (snail), arthropods (insects)

-CLOSED circulatory system:
--Blood pumps within a secluded blood vessel amongst itself
--vertebrates (backbone), earthworm, octopus

Comparative Anatomy: Hearts
-Fish: 2
-Amphibian (Frog): 3
-Reptile (Lizard): 3-4
-Bird/Mammal (Crow/You): 4

The cardiovascular system is a fascinatingly complex one that uniquely comprises primarily (but not exclusively (unless the discussion's basis revolves around the idea of simplistic measures)) of the hard-working heart and the efficiently excellent blood vessels, which are (needless to mention) inevitably teamed up (or forced to work) with the rigorous, colossal player in the soccer stadium, the motivated student in the school, the Lithium-ion 700 Milliamp battery in the Samsung Galaxy S phone, blood (or sangre, in Spanish).

What the...?
Cardiovascular system=heart+blood vessels+blood!

Parts:
Atrium=heart chamber that RECEIVES BLOOD
Ventricle=heart chamber that KICKS OUT BLOOD

Rankings!
Blood vessels: arteries, then arterioles, then capillaries, then venules, then veins.

DIFFUSION OCCURS IN THE CAPILLARIES.

SO...... where does blood travel?
1. Right ventricle
2. Lungs
3. Pulmonary valve
4. Capillaries (oxy diffuses into blood)
5. Pulmonary veins
6. Left Atrium (oxy rich!)
7. Bicuspid valve
8. Left ventricle
9. Aortic valve
10. Aorta
11. Capillaries (O2 diffuses into tissues, CO2 diffuses into blood)
12. Superior Vena Cava
13. Inferior Vena Cava
14. Right Atrium
15. Tricuspid Valve
16. Dispersed to supply arteries!

How does the heart work?
-Atria has thin walls, pumps blood to VENTRICLE
-Ventricle has THICK walls, pumps blood to BODY
-Valves make sure blood doesn't come back inside
-4 chambers make it easy to separate oxy rich and oxy poor blood!

Cardiac Cycle
-Definition: rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the heart
Two phases of this cycle!
1. Diastole-relaxation
2. Systole-contraction

Homework: Read chapter 23 pages 503-514.
Late arrival tomorrow!

5.10.11
Kristen

Hey guys! Sorry there hasn't been a new post in a while. I had some technical difficulties.

Today we took a quiz on digestion. Just remember which enzymes break down what.

Mrs. Patrick collected the frog lab and the energy content lab.

*Read the nutrients lab because it's a bell-to-bell lab so come prepared!!!!!

*Design-A-Quiz due Thursday!!!!

*Ch 22 Study Guide due tomorrow!!!!

Next Scribe: Davin

4-26-11

Yunsu Yu

4 Ways that We Regulate Our Internal Environment:

1. Homeostasis: (Review from yesterday...)

• Steady state. While there are large external fluctuations, our homeostatic mechanisms take those in and make them smaller fluctuations.
  

• Although we use homeostasis, there are still changes but in ranges that are tolerable=dynamic state.

2. Negative/Positive Feedback:

• Negative Feedback: When something is too much and it turns off.---think of a thermostat, you set it to 72 degrees and when it gets too hot inside, the thermostat turns on and when the temperature goes over 72, it turns off because it is too hot at the moment.----"on and off" switch.
• Positive Feedback: Process that intensifies-makes even more---"on and on more" switch.
  
• Usually negative feedback is used especially in our bodies, but positive feedback is still present.

3.Thermoregulation: maintenance of internal body temperature.

• we are endotherms, we make our own heat from metabolism: sum of chemical reaction=heat.
  
• ectotherms use the sun for heat. Ex:Reptiles.
• Heat loss is regulated by hair, fur, migration, huddling, clothing, sweating, and panting.
• When we get cold our blood vessels constrict near the surface this is what causes shivering and goosebumps. ---this leads to a decrease in exchange from environment.
• Our brains are the control center. This is the thermostat of our bodies and uses Negative feedback when needed.
  

4.Osmoregulation: control of the gain or loss of water and dissolved solutes.

• Gain water from drinking or eating
  

• Through urinating, breathing, and perspiring we lose water. ---the kidneys help regulate this!
  

When someone has a fever should you lower it?

• It depends: sometimes a fever is good because it kills bacteria growth and speeds up the repair of damaged tissue. (100-102 degrees)
  
• But can also be harmful because it damages body proteins and you can die. (104 degrees and over.)
• Fever-caused by "pyrogens" these raise the body temperature.
  

The Excretory System: Kidney, Skin, Lungs..etc

1. Kidneys are the main organs. They filter blood and take out the "bad" stuff.

• We have 2 kidneys that are smaller than your fist and are located in the lower back.

• They contain tubules, capillaries. Throught the tubules blood enters and it filtrates water, glucose, salts, and amino acids.
• Waste products need to be excreted: urea, extra water, extra salt . (sweat)
• The four Processes of the Kidney:
  

1. Filtration: Small things only enter the tubule.
2. Reabsorption: Water and solutes are returned. Take back what we want.
3. Secretion: Specific substances are removed from blood-2nd chance to get everything-drugs go through here (medicine.)
4. Excretion: Urine exits body. Leftover waste.
   

We then took a look at the kidney and labeled the parts:



HW: Design a QUiZ due May 12th

Do UP. 53-57 due Thursday

Do Up. 7-11 due Thursday

NO SCHOOL TOM SO SLEEP IN!

next scribe: Kristen M.

Unit 11: Body Tissues, Excretion, and Digestion

Anatomy = the study of the structure of an organism and its parts.

Physiology = the study of the function of these structures.

5 Levels of Organization:

• Cellular Level
• Tissue Level
• Organ Level
• Organ System Level
• The Organism Itself

Four Main Types of Tissues

1. Epithelial

2.Connective

3. Muscle

4. Nervous

Epithelial Tissue:

covers surface of body, lines organs and cavities

*replaced completely every two weeks*

Connective Tissue:

sparse; scattered through an extracellular matrix; six major types

1. Loose Connective Tissue (webbed)
2. Adipose Tissue (fat)
3. Blood
4. Fibrous Connective Tissue
5. Cartilage
6. Bone

Loose: holds organs in place; loose weave, but strong; has elastic fibers -

"Snap it while you can!" - Christine Kim

Adipose: stores fat; fat bubbles expand when fat is consumed

Blood: red and white blood cells in plasma(liquid)

Fibrous: forms tendons(muscle to bone) and ligaments(bone to bone)

Cartilage: rubbery, but strong; heals slowly

"Sharks are made entirely of cartilage." - James Cho

Bone: rigid with calcium deposits; hard, but not brittle

Muscle Tissue:

MEAT! contract when stimulated by a signal

-3 types:

Skeletal: voluntary, striated(alignment), fixed number(weight lifting only expands)

Cardiac: only in the heart; striated, involuntary(do not have to think to make heart beat)

Smooth: walls of organs, blood vessels; involuntary, not striated

Nervous Tissue:

sends information from one body part to another

"Open" System

=

we exchange chemicals and energy with surroundings continuously

In = nutrients and oxygen

Out = waste and carbon dioxide

We exchange indirectly via our circulatory system

**Homeostasis**

=

VERY IMPORTANT WORD

It means keeping a steady state - internal body maintains constant conditions even when external environment changes.

Next Scribe: Nick.

April 19. 2011

Notes:
GLYCOLYSIS:

• 6 carbons in, 6 carbons out (glucose, 2 pyruvic acid)
• 2 ATP needed at beginning as investment
• 4 ATP released, 2 ATP gained at end
• REMEMBER: break bond--> release energy. form bond--> store potential energy

GLYCOLYSIS TO KREBS CYCLE:

• 2 Reactants: NAD+ and Coenzyme A
• 3 Products: CO2, NADH (potential energy/energy carrier), Acetyl-CoA

KREBS CYCLE:

• 6 carbons in, 6 carbons out
• Reactants: Acetic acid, ADP+P, 3 NAD+, FAD
• Products: 2CO2, 2ATP, 3 NADH, FADH2 (energy carrier)

ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN:

• concentration gradient similar to photosynthesis,
• H+ ions move from high concentration to low concentration by diffusion,
• fuels ATP sythase to create ATP from ADP (34 total)
• O2 is final electron acceptor, bonds with H+ to form H2O

AEROBIC VS. ANAEROBIC:

• example of anaerobic function: sprinting
• anaerobic: doesn't require oxygen
• aerobic: requires oxygen
• facultative anaerobe can break down with or without oxygen
• obligate anaerobe is poisoned by oxygen
• obligate aerobe dependent on oxygen to survive
• body cells facultative anaerobes
• human body is an obligate aerobe

LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION:

• Only 2 ATP produced compared to 34-38 in cellular respiration
• anaerobic glycolysis is included in process
• lactic acid is waste product
• anaerobic

ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION:

• Yeast produces ethyl alcohol and CO2
• anaerobic

Next Scribe: Sonali

4/8/11

Photosynthesis Chemical Reaction (Please Memorize!!!!)

• 6 CO2 + 6 H20 = C6H1206 + 6 O2
• (The numbers are actually subscripts and the "equals" sign is actually an arrow, meaning "yield")
• Reactants= 6 CO2 (Carbon Dioxide), 6 H20 (Water)
• Products= C6H1206 (Glucose), 6 02 (Oxygen Gas)
• Electrons added to Carbon dioxide to produce sugar Water molecules split and release oxygen gas (Sunlight provides the energy for this)
• Simple Summary of Photosynthesis
• 

Light Reactions and Calvin Cycle- 2 different cycles but work together

• Light Reactions
• convert solar energy to chemical energy
• make ATP (for energy storage) and NADPH (is an electron carrier)
• Reactants: NADP+ and ADP and Water (H20) and Light
• Products: Oxygen and ATP and NADPH
• Happens in thylakoid
• Calvin Cycle
• "light independent cycle" or "dark reactions"
• makes sugar from CO2
• uses ATP and NADPH from light reactions
• Reactants: CO2, ATP, NADPH
• Products: Sugar (there are other products too; any other organic product can result also)

Products of Light Reactions are needed for Calvin Cycle and products of Calvin Cycle needed for Light Reactions (Dependent on each other)

Light Reactions

(More Detailed)

• Light is energy!!!
• Sunlight- radiation or electromagnetic energy
• Visible Light is from 380-750 nm (wavelength)
• What we can see- ONLY light reflected from an object

EX- green leaves absorb red-orange and blue-violet light; reflecting green light (chloroplasts convert that absorbed energy into chemical energy)

• Chloroplast Pigments (found in photosystems)
• Chlorophyll a-
• absorbs blue-violet light and red light
• participates directly w/ light reactions
• Chloropyll b-
• absorbs blue and orange light
• increases range of light that can be absorbed (helps light reactions)
• Carotenoids-
• absorbs blue-green light
• absorbs and dissipates excessive light that could damage chlorophyll a

Photosystems and Light

• Photon- fixed quantity of light energy
• pigment molecules absorb photons of light, "exciting" the electrons so that they have more energy (higher energy state)
• electrons "falls" back to normal state (because the more energy they have the more unstable they are)
• releases energy (in form of light or heat)

arrows=light and heat energy being released as electron falls back to normal state

• Photosystems- have clusters of pigment molecules that act as antennae for photons of light
• Photons of light "jump" from pigment to pigment until they reach the Reaction Center (has chlorophyll a)
• Next to Reaction Center= Primary Electron Acceptor
• traps the excited light energy into ATP or NADPH
• 

2 types of Photosystems

• Water-splitting
• light energy to extract electrons from water
• releases oxygen as waste product
• NADPH Producing
• produces NADPH by transferring light excited electrons from chlorophyll to NADP+
• ALL ENERGY IS STORED IN CHEMICAL BONDS!!!!
• Electron transport chain
• connects the 2 photosystems, releases energy used to make ATP

• ATP Synthase- uses energy stored by H+ gradient to make ATP
• H+ molecules= more on the inside than on the outside, so they want to move to the outside

HW:

Read CH. 7

Pre-lab UP pg. 9-12

Next scribe= Kristen :):)

4/7/11

End of Chemistry notes:

Chemical reaction: the chemical composition of matter is changed in a reaction

- in order to have a balanced chamical reaction, the number of each element must be the equal on both sides

REACTIONS NEVER CREATE OR DESTROY MATTER, THEY REARRAGE IT

Photosynthesis:

-Photosynthesis feeds the biosphere

-converts energy from sun energy into chemical energy of organic compounds

-occurs in plants, some protists and some bacteria

-Autotrophs- make own food, need inorganic compounds to make organic compounds, these are the producers

-Heterotrophs- cannot make its own food, they eat, dependent on autotrophs, these are the consumers

Photosynthesis occurs in CHLOROPLASTS (mainly the leaves of a plant)

-double membrane envelope

-inner membrane encloses stroma- fluid where sugars are made

-thylakaids- sacs in stroma

-grana=stacks of thylakaids

Homework: read chapter 7

Next Scribe: bridget :)

4/6/11

Today, the Fast Plant was due, so everyone make sure that you get that in. Also, today we continued some Basic Chemistry Notes (We couldn't do much because of the late arrival). One important note is that molecules, a new term, are groups of atoms that are joined together through chemical bonds. The big thing was the main difference between ionic bonds and covalent bonds, which are both tyes of chemical bonds. Remember that: Ionic bonds involve the transfer of electrons. And covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons between atoms. Examples: ionic bond = table salt molecules, and covalent bonds = water molecules As a general note: remember that atoms are the basic unit of matter. Elements are substances that are made of only one type of atom. Compounds are substances that are made up of two or more elements. And molecules are particles that are made up of two or more different types of atom. Next scribe = Claire

3/23/11

Chapter 29 Continued

• Transpiration works greatest on sunny, warm, dry and windy days.
• Maple tree can lose more than 200 L of water per hour (that's a lot)!
• Leaf stomata can help plants adjust to transpiration rates by changing shape.
• Open during the day, closed during the night (saves water).
• The stomata may close during the day if the plant is losing water too fast.

The Transport of Sugars:

• Phloem saps move in various directions inside of a plant.
• Phloem moves sugar from a leaf to a root of fruit.
• They move through a pressure-flow mechanism.
• Pressure-flow mechanism is the building of water pressure at source end of phloem tube, and the reduction of water pressure at the sink end causes water to flow from the source (leaf) to sink (root or fruit), carrying sugar with it.

Plant Hormones:

• Plant hormones control the growth & development of a plant.
• It affects division, elongation, & differentiation in cells.
• Auxin - Produced by apical meristem, stimulates growth of the shoot -- causes the cell to elongate.
• Cells elongate on the darker side of the stem, causing the stem to bend on opposite sides.
• Requires certain concentrations: too much causes inhibition of stem elongation.
• Usually inhibits roots.
• Ethylene - A gas that triggers aging responses - fruit ripening, dropping of leaves.
• Why does "one bad apple spoil the whole bunch?" Because one causes all to spoil, it spreads out.
• Cytokinins - Regulates growth, promotes cell division in roots, embryos, and fruits. 
• Stimulates growth of axillary buds (makes it more bushy).
• Gibberellins - Stimulates cell elongation & cell division in stems.
• Can influence fruit development.
• Abscisic Acid - Slows growth.
• During droughts, causes stomata to close when wilted, preventing further water loss.

Photoperiods:

• Enviornment that plants use to detect the time of the year; Lengths of day & night.
• 2 Groups:
• Long-night Plants - chrysanthemum & poinsettias - flower in late summer, fall, or winter, when night lenghtens (Short-day).
• Short-night Plants - lettuce, iris, cereal grains, flower in late spring or early summer, when nights are brieft (Long-day).
• We are currently transitioning into short-nights.
• Some plants aren't affected by photoperiods -- dandelions.

HW: EC UP. 63-64, Study!

Next Scribe: Sonali P.

3-22-11

Chapter 29: The Working Plant

Sap- a watery solution that moves through the vascular system.
-In the xylem, it carries nutrients from root to leaves.
-In phloem, it transports pre made sugar to the leaves and other parts of the plant.
-Made in Spring using starch from the previous summer into sugar

-Plants need CO2 from air (through stomata)
-They need H2O from soil (root hairs)
-and O2 from soil (through stomata)

-A plant releases more O2 by photosynthesis than by
respiration
-All nutrition that enters the plant must be dissolved in water.
-Go through the epidermis -> cortex ->plasma membrane of root cells
-Plants need Macronutrients in large amounts. (carbon, hydrogen, oxtygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, calcium, potassium, and magnesium.)
-They need Micronutrients in small amounts (zinc, molybdenum, boron, nickel, mainly enzymes.)
-THEIR NUTRITION AFFECTS OUT OWN!

Bacteria help with nutrition; three types:
1.) NITROGEN FIXING BACTERIA- converts N2 in the air to ammonium
2.) AMMONIFYING BACTERIA- adds ammonium to decomposing plant matter
3.) NITRIFYING BACTERIA- converts soil to nitrate.

-Legumes have root nodules that contain nirtogen fixing bacteria.
-Symbiotic relationship, bacteria get home, plants get ions in soil.

The transportation of water:
-Pulled up through transpiration
-cohesion water molecules stick together
-adhesion-water molecules stick to each other


next scribe SALLY Y.

3/14/11

Look for more notes at the flowering plant lab

Difference between Monocots and Dicots:

Monocots:

• include orchids, palms, lilies, grains, and grasses.
• 1 cotyledon
• veins usually parallel
• Vascular bundles in scattered arrangement
• floral parts usually in multiples of 3
• Fibrous root system

Dicots:

• 2 cotyledons
• veins usually branched
• vascular bundles arranged in ring
• floral parts usually in multiples of 5
• taproot usually present

Roots: root hairs increase surface area of root for absorbtion. Large taproots-store food
Stems: Terminal bud is at apex of stem. It produces hormones making the plant grow up toward the sun.
3 kinds of stems:

1. Runner: horizontal stem, new plants emerge from tip of runner
2. Rhizome: Horizontal undergrowth stems, store food and can bud new plants
3. Tubers: rhizomes ending in large structures(potatoes)

Leaves:
Tendrils= modified leaves for climbing and support.
Parenchyma cells: most abundant cell, for food storage, only primary cell walls
Collenchyma cells: provide support in growing parts of plant, only primary cell walls
Sclerenchyma cells: have thick secondary walls with lignin(wood), when mature most are dead
2 plant vascular tissues:

1. Xylem: contains water conducting cells- move water and minerals up stem
2. Phloem: contains food conducting cells-transport sugars from leaves or storage tissue to other parts of plant

3 tissue systems continuous throughout plant:

1. Dermal: covers, protcts, waxy coating
2. Vascular: xylem and phloem, support and transport
3. Ground: bulk of young plant, fills spaces between epidermis and vascular

Pollination and double fertilization steps:

1. Pollination
2. Pollen form 2 sperm
3. sperm travel through a pollen tube to ovule
4. double fertilization occurs

next scribe: Davin

March 11, 2011

Justin

Today we started off the day by watering our Wild plants. We watered them good for the weekend.

Next we moved on to notes.

Moss-Antheridium is the male gametophyte

II. Ferns

• very diverse and most live in the tropics and temperate woodlands.
• Started to have vascular tissue
• Sperm are still flagellated (STILL NEED WATER!)
• 
• Still seedless- have spores
• Sporophytes are diploid and gametophytes are haploid
• Sporophyte is the dominant stage
• heart shaped gametophyte is Prothallus

III. Gymnosperms

• cone-bearing plants (conifers)
• Withstand harsh winter
• Tallest, oldest, largest
• needle shaped leaves
• 
• have thick cuticle and stomata in pits to prevent water loss
• wood- vascular tissue with liginin
• more sporophyte generation, gametophytes live in cones
• have pollen (male gametophyte

1. contains sperm
2. wind carries it
3. evolution of seeds

• lack ovaries so seeds are naked
• seeds germinates under favorable conditions only
• 2 types of cones

1. Female cone is hard, woody, and more familiar (pinecones)
2. Male cone is smaller, releases millions of pollen grains. Wind blows it.
3. Advantage is more genetic variation

IV. Angiosperms- flowering plants

• supply food, textile, some lumber
• refined vascular tissue
• evolution of flowers- responsible for unparalleled success
• 
• the flowers display male and female parts
• insects transfer pollen. Advantage of this is there is a higher chance of pollenation
• Flower has Sepals, petals, stamens, and carpals

1. Sepals- green, enclose flower before is opens up
2. petals- these are th parts that attract the insects
3. stamen- have filaments that bears a sac called the anther. Anther is a MALE organ that develops the pollen grains
4. Carpel- also known as pistil. has a sticky tip called the stigma that traps the pollen. Has a style and an ovary. A chamber containing one or more ovules. This is where the egg develops!

Angiosperms life cycle

• Sporophyte is a familiar plant- female gametophyte within the ovule, and th emale gametophyte is the pollen
• pollen lands on stigma, tube goes to the ovule. It deposits 2 sperm nuclei. Double fertalization
• one sperm cell fertilizes. This becomes a zygote and then an embryo.
• the other cell becomes nutrient for the embryo- storing tissue is called the endosperm
• Embryo has food within the ovule
• Ovule develops into a seed. THE SEED IS NOT NAKED
  
• Fruit: ripened ovary of the flower
• Fruit protects and helps disperse seeds.
• Animals help to disperse the seeds
• All fruit and vegetables crops are angiosperms.

This is the end of the notes we took. Next we watched a Life video.

HW: Read Chapter 28, work on projects

next scribe is Care Bear